Edward Gibbons’ epilogue to his book, “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire”, mentions several factors that led to the collapse of the Empire:
Barbarian Invasions: Incursions and settlements of Germanic tribes, Saxons, Huns, Alans, and others that overtaxed and weakened the Roman military and its infrastructure.
Decline of Civic Virtue: Loss of a sense of civic duty and responsibility and the subsequent decay of public morality
Christianity: Spiritual concerns took the focus away from civic duties. (Gibbons wasn’t an atheist but likely a deist or a detached Christian with a disdain for organized religion.)
Economic Decay: The empire faced heavy taxation, inflation, and reliance on slave labor. Inflation was due to government corruption, excessive trade imports, military spending, and debasement of the currency.
Political Corruption: A corrupt and unstable political system led to ineffective and nonsensical governance.
Military Overextension: The Empire was too large to manage, resulting in an over-stretched military.
Marcus Aurelius in his book, “Meditations” also mentions the Antonine Plague years of 165-180 AD (a second outbreak occurring from 251-266 AD) as the primary cause of the Empire’s decline. The plague reduced Rome’s population, affecting its military’s ability to defend its borders, and the loss of labor to maintain its infrastructure.
Additional factors have also been mentioned by others, including: a disloyal military, civil wars, lead poisoning, and the always useful-climate change.
Source: “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” by Edward Gibbons, 1776-1788. “Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius. Graphic: Destruction by Thomas Cole, 1836, from the series: The Course of Empire. New York Historical Society. Public Domain.
Marcus Aurelius in “Meditations” reflects and instructs continuously on living harmoniously within the constructs of the universe, nature, and reason.
His philosophical foundation, Stoicism, meant living virtuously and rationally within a structured system that he believed was a manifestation of “Logos”, the rational principle that governs the universe. “Logos” can be understood as a divine rationality or intelligence that permeates and directs the universe.
Reason or “Logos” is the central pillar of Stoicism and is the guiding principle that governs the universe. Rational thought, rather than emotional impulse, is about seeking wisdom, demonstrating courage, seeking justice, and exercising temperance: living virtuously.
Nature means understanding that everything in life is interconnected, that all life is part of a larger, harmonious system governed by reason.
The Universe, to Stoics, is a well-ordered system where all actions happen for a reason. Stoics believed that one must live in harmony with the universe and embrace “Amor Fati”, accepting fate and focusing only on matters within one’s control.
Source: Meditations by Marcus Aurelius. Friedrich Nietzsche.
Marcus Aurelius, the last Stoic, stays his fear of death by believing that life’s pauses and changes are preludes to death of which we should not fear. He stated in Book IX of his Meditations: “[as you] …pass to the ages of your life, boyhood for instance, youth, manhood, old age; for each change of these was a death; was there anything to be afraid of?”
This comes directly from Heraclitus, a Greek philosopher and influencer of the first Stoic: Zeno, stating that, “The living and the dead, the sleeper and the watcher, the young and the old are the same.”
St. Augustine in Confessions rephrases Marcus and Heraclitus with the joyful question; “And lo! My infancy died long since, and I am alive… Declare to me, your suppliant, did my infancy succeed to some age of mine that is also dead?”
Joseph Butler, Christian apologist and philosopher, carries the thought to its logical conclusion, writing: “We have passed undestroyed through those many and great resolutions of matter, so peculiarly appropriated to us ourselves; why should we imagine death will be so fatal to us?”
Butler’s argument is that if we’ve survived many transformations throughout our lives, there’s no reason to believe that death would be our ultimate end. His view is grounded in the belief that our continued existence after death is consistent with the enduring nature of our existence during life.
Source: Meditations by Marcus Aurelius, edited by Farquharson. Graphic: The Last Judgement by Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel. Public Domain.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman Emperor, soldier, stoic philosopher, stated in Book I of his Meditations that Plutarch’s nephew, Sextus taught him: “…life according to Nature, Dignity without pretense, solicitous consideration for friends, tolerance of amateurs and of those whose opinions have no ground in science.”
Marcus Aurelius, along with Alexander the Great are two rulers who came closest to Plato’s concept of a Philosopher-King. Plato believed that to rule justly and wisely required a thorough foundation in philosophical principles coupled with the skill to serve for the benefit of the state and the ruled rather than for personal gain.
Source: Meditations by Marcus Aurelius. Graphic: Bust of Aurelius extracted from Glyptothek Munich. Public Domain.
Epictetus was a 1st and 2nd century AD Greek Stoic who lived a simple life and taught philosophy at his school in Nicopolis, Greece. No writings of his have survived, if there were any to begin with, but his pupil Arrian captured his teachings and collected them into two separate works: The Discourses and the Enchiridion.
In The Enchiridion Epictetus briefly discusses 52 or 53 maximums or rules a practicing Stoic should live by with the first and main rule being that you should “only concern yourself with matters that you can control.” Everything else is irrelevant to living a pleasant life.
Stoicism is the philosophy of resilience and patience. Adherents believed in leading a life of virtue, which one did by acquiring wisdom, exhibiting courage, practicing temperance, and promoting justice.
Famous Stoics throughout Greek and Roman history include Zeon of Citium, Eratosthenes of Alexandria, Lucius Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius.
Source: The Enchiridion by Epictetus/Arrian, translated by Elizabeth Carter contained within Ancient Greek Philosophers, published 2018. Graphic of Epictetus by William Sonmans 1715, public domain.
Paul L. Maier, born 1930 in St. Louis, author, public speaker, and historian has written twenty-three adult and children, fiction and non-fiction, books about Christianity. He is the son of Walter A. Maier, founder, and speaker of The Lutheran Hour.
He graduated from Harvard and Concordia Seminary in St. Louis with additional studies in Heidelberg, Germany and Basel, Switzerland. He was the Seibert Professor of Ancient History at Western Michigan University until he retired in 2011.
In addition to his definitive translation of “Eusebius: The Church History“, his 1993 “Skeleton in God’s Closet” was a number one best seller in religious fiction, a thriller concerning the Resurrection of Jesus. He also co-wrote with Hank Hanegraaff in 2006 a rebuttal to Dan Brown’s “The Da Vinci Code“: “The Da Vinci Code: Fact or Fiction?“
In addition to writing books Maier has produced six religious documentaries including the 2014 “The Week That Changed the World“, detailing the Holy Week before Jesus’s resurrection, discussing the key personalities, the politics, and the treachery that sealed Christ’s fate.
MaierBibliography-Books and Documentaries:
A Man Spoke, A World Listened: The Story of Walter A. Maier 1963
Pontius Pilate 1968
First Christmas: The True and Unfamiliar Story in Words and Pictures 1971
First Easter: The True and Unfamiliar Story in Words and Pictures 1973
First Christians: Pentecost and the Spread of Christianity 1976
Flames of Rome 1981
The Best of Walter A. Maier 1981 (paperback)
Josephus, The Essential Writings 1988
In Fullness of Time 1991
A Skeleton in God’s Closet 1994
The Very First Christmas 1998
The New Complete Works of Josephus with William Whiston 1999
Eusebius: The Church History 1999
The Very First Easter 2000
More Than a Skeleton 2003
Caspar Schwenckfeld on the Person and Work of Christ: A Study of Schwenckfeldian Theology at Its Core 2004 (paperback)
Martin Luther a Man Who Changed the World 2004
The Da Vinci Code: Fact or Fiction? with Hank Hanegraaf 2006
The Real Story of Creation 2007
The Real Story of the Flood 2008
A Skeleton in Rome 2011
The Constantine Codex 2011
The Genuine Jesus 2021
Christianity: The First Three Centuries (Documentary) 2003
The Odyssey of St. Paul (Documentary) 2003
Jesus: Legend or Lord? (Documentary) 2003
How We Got the Bible (Documentary) 2009
Christianity and the Competition (Documentary) 2010
The Week that Changed the World (Documentary) 2011
Eusebius Biography:
FootnoteA
“May I be an enemy to no one and the friend of what abides eternally. May I never quarrel with those nearest me and be reconciled quickly if I should. May I never plot evil against others, and if anyone plots evil against me, may I escape unharmed and without the need to hurt anyone else.” — Eusebius
Eusebius of Caesarea, also known as Eusebius Pamphili, was a historian, interpreter of scripture, and Christian apologist, born around 260-265 AD in Caesarea, where he gained prominence in the fourth century, before passing away around 339 AD. His early education was by the learned presbyter, and eventual saint, Pamphilus, the principle religious scholar of his generation. Eusebius became bishop of Caesarea around 314 AD, shortly after Constantine became Roman Emperor, and remained in that position until his death in 339 AD. Eusebius became a significant figure in the theological controversies and politics of his day, becoming a, if not the leading spiritual advisor and confidant to Constantine.
Christians since the time of Christ were persecuted for their faith which came to a ghoulish crescendo under the Diocletian Edicts, also known as “The Edicts Against the Christians” of 303 AD. The edicts dissolved the Christians’ legal rights, compelled them to reject Jesus and to adhere to the local religious customs of paganism and polytheism. The edict saw the destruction of Christian scripture and churches along with the torture and execution of approximately 3500 church leaders and lay people including Eusebius’ teacher Pamphilus. The persecution ended with the Edict of Milian in 313 AD, decreed and signed by Constantine and Licinius proclaiming religious toleration within the empire.
FootnoteB
The edict gained the life-long gratitude of Eusebius culminating in the Christian bishop’s panegyric, “Life of Constantine“, in which the author details the emperor’s religious policies as well as a hagiographic account of Constantine’s life. Historians have described their relationship as complex, evolving over time. They have also stated that Eusebius may have been the power behind the throne or, as others have surmised, just an obsequious toady seeking protection from his church enemies. Regardless of the actual relationship it is agreed that Eusebius was Constantine’s spiritual and political advisor.
FootnoteC
Eusebius, through his bond with the emperor, helped structure the relationship between church and state, assisting in the creation of the Constantinian concept of a Christian empire, which had a considerable influence on the development of the early Christian Church and the Roman Empire, along with empires to come.
Constantine, to put down an early rebellion of church leaders, ordered three hundred bishops throughout the empire to meet at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD to resolve the controversy of Arianism, a concept that Christ was not divine but was created by God. Much of the Church believed that Christ was of the same substance, “consubstantiality“, as the Father and as such: divine. Eusebius, enjoying the emperor’s favor, sat next to him at the council and offered his own creed stating that Christ was begotten, not made, from the Father. The council, in the end, rejected Arianism and formulated the creed that is recited at every High Catholic Mass to this day. The council also set the time for Easter as the Sunday after the first full moon following the Spring equinox rather than occurring on the Sunday closest to Jewish Passover or on the Jewish Passover even it was not on a Sunday. Which explains why no one knowns when Easter occurs. Constantine was adamant about foregoing any Jewish practices in the honor of Jesus.
Eusebius is referred to as the “Father of Church History” due to his voluminous writings in the field including, as discussed below, his account of the first centuries of Christianity in his “Ecclesiastical History” or “Church History“.
Church History (Ecclesiastical History):
FootnoteD
“Church History ” or “Ecclesiastical History” is the only exigent work that chronicles the development of early Christianity and its Church from the birth of Christ on into the fourth century. Eusebius’s account, written in Koiné Greek, lingua franca for the Mediterranean area from fourth century BC to fourth century AD, provides a chronological narrative, using the succession of Roman Emperors as a linear timeline, of the early Christian Church. Eusebius, with his access to the Theological Library of Caesarea, incorporated many church documents, acts of the martyrs, letters, and extracts from earlier Christian writings into his work, many which no longer exists. The “Church History” covers the succession of Church bishops, the history of Christian teachers especially Origen, the history of the many church heresies and conflicts, and Christianity’s relationships with Romans, pagans, and Jews. Despite accusations that “Church History” is more a defense of Christianity, an apologetic and hagiography, than a history, Eusebius’s work remains a valuable source for understanding early Christian history.
Below are the Maier’s chapter listings, brief descriptions, and Roman Emperors during the historical period covered.
Book I: The Person and Work of Christ: Eusebius on Christ. Augustus to Tiberius.
Book II: The Apostles: Eusebius on the Apostles. Tiberius to Nero.
Book III: Missions and Persecutions:Formation of the New Testament. Galba to Trajan.
Book IV: Bishops, Writings, and Martyrdoms: Defenders and Defamers of the Faith. Trajan to Marcus Aurelius.
Book V: Western Heros, Eastern Heretics: Death at Lyons, Rome, and Alexandria. Marcus Aurelius to Septimius Severus.
Book VI: Origen and Atrocities at Alexandria: Life of Origen. Septimius Severus to Decius.
Book VII: Dionysius and Dissent: Church Life According to Dionysius. Gallus to Diocletian.
Book VIII: The Great Persecution: Edicts Against Christians. Diocletian to Galerius.
Book IX: The Great Deliverance: The End of Persecution? Maximin, Maxentius, and Constantine.
Book X: Constantine and Peace: Eusebius and Constantine. Constantine.
Literary Criticism:
In C.F. Cruse’s 1850 translation of “Ecclesiastical History” he states that, “…Eusebius was not without his beauties, but they were rarely scattered, that we can hardly allow him an eminent rank as a writer.” This is an understatement of the 19th century although it is a polite way to admit Eusebius was incapable of engaging his readers in any form other than pedantic verbosity. This is also an example that Cruse was not immune from obfuscating meaning in his written translations and commentary. His comment above simply stated that Eusebius rarely wrote with elegance and concision. Eusebius’ writing was dense, confusing, dogmatic, and sometimes incomprehensible. Eusebius’ writing compares favorably, snark intended, with Edward Gibbons’ “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” whose erudite, verbose, and opaque style has managed to confuse his readers for two plus centuries now, but for some reason no one seems to mind, except me. Gibbons disliked, immensely, Eusebius’ “Ecclesiastical History” stating that it was full of lies and falsehoods which is an exceedingly difficult position to support due to Eusebius’ excessive use, usually in quotes, of original source material. Gibbons blamed the fall of the Roman Empire on the rise of Christianity, a problematic thesis considering Christianity was the least of the Empires worries. Unchecked immigration and a corrupt governing class were much bigger problems than a few Christians asking to be left alone to worship their God in peace.
Paul L. Maier’s translation of “Church History” is a masterful improvement over C.F. Cruse’s 1850 attempt to make Eusebius readable. Cruse strove to accurately translate Eusebius with the result of burdening his readers with difficult and cluttered phrasing. Maier saves his readers by reducing Eusebius’s lengthy sentences, dense language, and abrupt subject changes to intelligible bites of prose that are readable, understandable, and usable. An example of Maier taking difficult sentences and distilling them into something cogent can be seen in the two example sentences below. The first sentence comes from Loeb’s edition of “Ecclesiastical History“, which is a very faithful rendition of Eusebius’ writing, followed by Maier’s translated version. Loeb: “I have already summarized the material in the chronological tables which I have drawn up, but nevertheless in the present work I have undertaken to give the narrative in full detail.” Maier:“Previously I summarized this material in my Chronicle but in the present work I deal with it in the fullest detail.” The first sentence takes a few readings to comprehend the meaning. Maier allows for instant comprehension.
“Ecclesiastical History” or “Church History” is an important work in understanding the beginnings of Christianity and the governing hierarchy that was built up over the centuries. This is not a long book, less than four hundred pages, but it does take dedication to the task of reading and understanding it. In the end it is worth the effort as a little history is always useful if not enlightening.
References and Readings:
Eusebius. By Allan Miller. Wikipedia. 2001 (2024 Update)
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